Research has shown that trees exhibit circadian movement patterns. Recently nocturnal movement of tree branches were discovered by using terrestrial laser scanning (TLS). The movement is somewhat analogous to a human heartbeat – it apperently pumps water from the roots into the branches. While the human hearts beats on average 70 to 90 times per min. the pulse of trees streches over several hours.
Zlinszky, A., Molnár, B., & Barfod, A. S.. (2017). Not All Trees Sleep the Same—High Temporal Resolution Terrestrial Laser Scanning Shows Differences in Nocturnal Plant Movement. Frontiers in Plant Science, 8
“circadian leaf movements are widely known in plants, but nocturnal movement of tree branches were only recently discovered by using terrestrial laser scanning (tls), a high resolution three-dimensional surveying technique. tls uses a pulsed laser emitted in a regular scan pattern for rapid measurement of distances to the targets, thus producing three dimensional point cloud models of sub-centimeter resolution and accuracy in a few minutes. here, we aimto gain an overview of the variability of circadianmovement of small trees across different taxonomic groups, growth forms and leaf anatomies. we surveyed a series of 18 full scans over a 12-h night period to measure nocturnal changes in shape simultaneously for an experimental setup of 22 plants representing different species. resulting point clouds were evaluated by comparing changes in height percentiles of laser scanning points belonging to the canopy. changes in crown shape were observed for all studied trees, but clearly distinguishable sleep movements are apparently rare. ambient light conditions were continuously dark between sunset (7:30 p.m.) and sunrise (6:00 a.m.), but most changes in movement direction occurred during this period, thus most of the recorded changes in crown shape were probably not controlled by ambient light. the highest movement amplitudes, for periodic circadian movement around 2 cm were observed for aesculus and acer, compared to non-periodic continuous change in shape of 5 cm for gleditschia and 2 cm for fargesia. in several species we detected 2–4 h cycles of minor crown movement of 0.5–1 cm, which is close to the limit of our measurement accuracy. we present a conceptual framework for interpreting observed changes as a combination of circadian rhythm with a period close to 12 h, short-term oscillation repeated every 2–4 h, aperiodic continuous movement in one direction and measurement noise which we assume to be random. observed movement patterns are interpreted within this framework, and connections with morphology and taxonomy are proposed. we confirm the existence of overnight ‘sleep’ movement for some trees, but conclude that circadian movement is a variable phenomenon in plants, probably controlled by a complex combination of anatomical, physiological, and morphological factors.”
By using the term embodied [cognition] we mean to highlight two points: first that cognition depends upon the kinds of experience that come from having a body with various sensorimotor capacities, and second, that these individual sensorimotor capacities are themselves embedded in a more encompassing biological, psychological and cultural context. ~ Francisco J. Varela, Evan Thompson, Eleanor Rosch: The Embodied Mind:
Cognitive Science and Human Experience. pp. 172–173
Western psychology (and therefore science in general) is deeply influenced by ancient Indian psychology and philosophy (yoga can be broadly defined as “the science of mind and consciousness”). The Swiss depth psychologist C.G. Jung (who coinned the term “collective unconscious”) wrote extensively on yoga philosophy. Jung formulated the following:
So it is better for Western man if he does not know too much about the secret insights of the Oriental sages to begin with, for, as I have said, it would be a case of the ‘right means in the hands of the wrong man’. ~ C.G. Jung (Jung on the East, p.105 – from Commentary on the secret of the golden flower)
Yoga is thus an ancient science which has profound effects on the human mind and on consciousness. It is far more than merely a form of intense physical exercise. However, it has strong effects on human physiology and specifically the human brain. These effects can be quantified by using various cutting-edge scientific methodologies (e.g., fMRI, EEG, et certera). From a physiological point of view it is very beneficial for the endocrine system, the lymphatic systems, the neurovascular system, and the deep fascia, inter alia. Recent empirical studies show that yoga has beneficial effects on various brain derived neurotrophic growth factors (e.g., BDNF) and on anti- inflammatory cytokines, inter alia (but see Cahn et al., 2017). It has been concluded that yoga significantly contributes to ‘brain health’ and autonomic homeostasis. Western science has only very recently started to systematically explore this vast and uncharted territory. Psychology can make important contributions to this endeavor. Yoga is particularly interesting from an embodied cognition point of view which postulates that sensorimotor processes are fundamental for all cognitive activities. Research indicates that physical flexibility is significantly correlated with cognitive flexibility (viz., thinking through the body). Moreover, Yoga is a fascinating subject for the modern neurosciences and we are now in the first stage of investigating its numerous and complex effects on neuronal processes (e.g., changes in neurotransmitter concentrations, neuroplasticity, dynamic functional connectivity, genetic/epigenetic effects, etc. pp.). However, Yoga by far exceed the investigative scope and intellectual capacity of these relatively immature and mainly materialistic sciences of the West. The phenomenology of yoga is very difficult to describe in linguistic terms. Its ultimate goal is self-realization (cf. Maslow) – the lifting of “the veil of māyā“ (Sanskrit: माया) and the attainment of a non-egoic higher level of consciousness which is free of illusion and devoid of conceptual content (Nirvikalpa Samādhi; Sanskrit: निर्विकल्प). The “Western mind” has great difficulties to grasp the ineffable depth of yoga. Our linguistic toolkit is not designed to communicate the essential aspects of this ancient spiritual discipline. Sanskrit, on the other hand, has an extensive vocabulary for psychological states. In addition to its semantics its phonology is regarded as very important. Psycholinguistic theories postulate that language fundamentally shapes the way we think (cf. linguistic relativity/Whorfianism). Therefore, it is not just the habitus & hexis (i.e., habits of thought and habits of movement) which influence our cognitive processes but also the socio-linguistic context in which we are enculturated, educated, and conditioned (or even propagandistically indoctrinated).
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Yoga, Brain-Health & Creativity
Yoga rejuvenates the nervous system and specifically the brain.
The word psyche is etymologically derived from the ancient Greek ψυχή (psukhḗ, which translates into “mind/soul/spirit/breath”).
Vrischikasana (Sanskrit: वृश्चिकासन) or "Scorpion pose" is an inverted asana which requires deep balance.
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Further references
Afonso, R. F., Balardin, J. B., Lazar, S., Sato, J. R., Igarashi, N., Santaella, D. F., … Kozasa, E. H.. (2017). Greater Cortical Thickness in Elderly Female Yoga Practitioners—A Cross-Sectional Study. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 9
“Yoga, a mind-body activity that requires attentional engagement, has been associated with positive changes in brain structure and function, especially in areas related to awareness, attention, executive functions and memory. normal aging, on the other hand, has also been associated with structural and functional brain changes, but these generally involve decreased cognitive functions. the aim of this cross-sectional study was to compare brain cortical thickness in elderly yoga practitioners and a group of age-matched healthy non-practitioners. we tested 21 older women who had practiced hatha yoga for at least eight years and 21 women naive to yoga, meditation or any mind-body interventions who were matched to the first group in age, years of formal education and physical activity level. a t1-weighted mprage sequence was acquired for each participant. yoga practitioners showed significantly greater cortical thickness in a left prefrontal lobe cluster, which included portions of the lateral middle frontal gyrus, anterior superior frontal gyrus and dorsal superior frontal gyrus. we found greater cortical thickness in the left prefrontal cortex of healthy elderly women who trained yoga for a minimum of eight years compared with women in the control group.”
Bushnell, M. C., Čeko, M., & Low, L. A.. (2013). Cognitive and emotional control of pain and its disruption in chronic pain. Nature Reviews Neuroscience
“Chronic pain is one of the most prevalent health problems in our modern world, with millions of people debilitated by conditions such as back pain, headache and arthritis. to address this growing problem, many people are turning to mind–body therapies, including meditation, yoga and cognitive behavioural therapy. this article will review the neural mechanisms underlying the modulation of pain by cognitive and emotional states — important components of mind–body therapies. it will also examine the accumulating evidence that chronic pain itself alters brain circuitry, including that involved in endogenous pain control, suggesting that controlling pain becomes increasingly difficult as pain becomes chronic.”
Cahn, B. R., Goodman, M. S., Peterson, C. T., Maturi, R., & Mills, P. J.. (2017). Yoga, Meditation and Mind-Body Health: Increased BDNF, Cortisol Awakening Response, and Altered Inflammatory Marker Expression after a 3-Month Yoga and Meditation Retreat. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
“Thirty-eight individuals (mean age: 34.8 years old) taking part in a 3-month yoga and meditation retreat were assessed before and after the intervention for psychometric measures, brain derived neurotrophic factor (bdnf) circadian salivary cortisol levels, pro- and anti- inflammatory cytokines. participation in the retreat was found to be associated with decreases in self-reported anxiety and depression as well as increases in mindfulness. as hypothesized, increases in the plasma levels of bdnf and increases in the magnitude of the cortisol awakening response were also observed. the normalized change in bdnf levels was inversely correlated with bsi-18 anxiety scores at both the pre-retreat (r=0.40, p<0.05) and post-retreat (r=0.52, p<0.005) such that those with greater anxiety scores tended to exhibit smaller pre- to post-retreat increases in plasma bdnf levels. in line with a hypothesized decrease in inflammatory processes resulting from the yoga and meditation practices, we found that the plasma level of the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-10 was increased and the pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-12 was reduced after the retreat. contrary to our initial hypotheses, plasma levels of other pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interferon gamma (ifn-γ), tumor necrosis factor (tnf-α), interleukin-1β (il-1β), interleukin-6 (il-6), and interleukin-8 (il-8) were increased after the retreat. given evidence from previous studies of the positive effects of meditative practices on mental fitness, autonomic homeostasis, and inflammatory status, we hypothesize that these findings are related to the meditative practices throughout the retreat; however, some of the observed changes may also be related to other aspects of the retreat such as physical exercise-related components of the yoga practice and diet. we hypothesize that the patterns of change observed here reflect mind-body integration and well-being. the increased bdnf levels observed is a potential mediator between meditative practices and brain health, the increased cortisol awakening response is likely reflection of increased dynamic physiological arousal, and the relationship of the dual enhancement of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine changes to healthy immunologic functioning is discussed.”
Douglass, L.. (2011). Thinking through the body: The conceptualization of yoga as therapy for individuals with eating disorders. Eating Disorders
“Yoga has historically been viewed as a discipline that increases self-awareness through body based practices, meditation, self-study, and the reading of philosophical texts. in the 21st century the mindfulness techniques of yoga have been adapted as an adjunct to the treatment of individuals with eating disorders. in an effort to understand the conceptualization of yoga as therapy for individuals with eating disorders, this article juxtaposes how mindfulness based yoga is regarded in three disciplines: sociology, neuroscience, and the ‘spiritual texts’ of yoga.”
Douglass, L.. (2013). Thinking through the body: the conceptualization of yoga as therapy for individuals with eating disorders.. Eating Disorders, 19(1), 83–96.
“Yoga has historically been viewed as a discipline that increases self-awareness through body based practices, meditation, self-study, and the reading of philosophical texts. in the 21st century the mindfulness techniques of yoga have been adapted as an adjunct to the treatment of individuals with eating disorders. in an effort to understand the conceptualization of yoga as therapy for individuals with eating disorders, this article juxtaposes how mindfulness based yoga is regarded in three disciplines: sociology, neuroscience, and the ‘spiritual texts’ of yoga.”
Fiori, F., David, N., & Aglioti, S. M.. (2014). Processing of proprioceptive and vestibular body signals and self-transcendence in Ashtanga yoga practitioners. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8
“In the rod and frame test (rft), participants are asked to set a tilted visual linear marker (i.e., a rod), embedded in a square, to the subjective vertical, irrespective of the surrounding frame. people not influenced by the frame tilt are defined as field-independent, while people biased in their rod verticality perception are field-dependent. performing rft requires the integration of proprioceptive, vestibular and visual signals with the latter accounting for field-dependency. studies indicate that motor experts in body-related, balance-improving disciplines tend to be field-independent, i.e., better at verticality perception, suggesting that proprioceptive and vestibular expertise acquired by such exercise may weaken the influence of irrelevant visual signals. what remains unknown is whether the effect of body-related expertise in weighting perceptual information might also be mediated by personality traits, in particular those indexing self-focusing abilities. to explore this issue, we tested field-dependency in a class of body experts, namely yoga practitioners and in non-expert participants. moreover we explored any link between performance on rft and self-transcendence (st), a complex personality construct, which refers to tendency to experience spiritual feelings and ideas. as expected, yoga practitioners (i) were more accurate in assessing the rod’s verticality on the rft, and (ii) expressed significantly higher st. interestingly, the performance in these two tests was negatively correlated. more specifically, when asked to provide verticality judgments, highly self-transcendent yoga practitioners were significantly less influenced by a misleading visual context. our results suggest that being highly self-transcendent may enable yoga practitioners to optimize verticality judgment tasks by relying more on internal (vestibular and proprioceptive) signals coming from their own body, rather than on exteroceptive, visual cues.”
Froeliger, B. E., Garland, E. L., Modlin, L. A., & McClernon, F. J.. (2012). Neurocognitive correlates of the effects of yoga meditation practice on emotion and cognition: a pilot study. Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience, 6
“Mindfulness meditation involves attending to emotions without cognitive fixation of emotional experience. over time, this practice is held to promote alterations in trait affectivity and attentional control with resultant effects on well-being and cognition. however, relatively little is known regarding the neural substrates of meditation effects on emotion and cognition. the present study investigated the neurocognitive correlates of emotion interference on cognition in yoga practitioners and a matched control group (cg) underwent fmri while performing an event-related affective stroop task. the task includes image viewing trials and stroop trials bracketed by neutral or negative emotional distractors. during image viewing trials, yoga practitioners exhibited less reactivity in right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlpfc) to negative as compared to neutral images; whereas the cg had the opposite pattern. a main effect of valence (negative > neutral) was observed in limbic regions (e.g., amygdala), of which the magnitude was inversely related to dlpfc activation. exploratory analyses revealed that the magnitude of amygdala activation predicted decreased self-reported positive affect in the cg, but not among yoga practitioners. during stroop trials, yoga practitioners had greater activation in ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (vlpfc) during stroop trials when negative, compared to neutral, emotional distractor were presented; the cg exhibited the opposite pattern. taken together, these data suggest that though yoga practitioners exhibit limbic reactivity to negative emotional stimuli, such reactivity does not have downstream effects on later mood state. this uncoupling of viewing negative emotional images and affect among yoga practitioners may be occasioned by their selective implementation of frontal executive-dependent strategies to reduce emotional interference during competing cognitive demands and not during emotional processing per se.”
Gard, T., Noggle, J. J., Park, C. L., Vago, D. R., & Wilson, A.. (2014). Potential self-regulatory mechanisms of yoga for psychological health. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8
“Research suggesting the beneficial effects of yoga on myriad aspects of psychological health has proliferated in recent years, yet there is currently no overarching framework by which to understand yoga’s potential beneficial effects. here we provide a theoretical framework and systems-based network model of yoga that focuses on integration of top-down and bottom-up forms of self-regulation. we begin by contextualizing yoga in historical and contemporary settings, and then detail how specific components of yoga practice may affect cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and autonomic output under stress through an emphasis on interoception and bottom-up input, resulting in physical and psychological health. the model describes yoga practice as a comprehensive skillset of synergistic process tools that facilitate bidirectional feedback and integration between high- and low-level brain networks, and afferent and re-afferent input from interoceptive processes (somatosensory, viscerosensory, chemosensory). from a predictive coding perspective we propose a shift to perceptual inference for stress modulation and optimal self-regulation. we describe how the processes that sub-serve self-regulation become more automatized and efficient over time and practice, requiring less effort to initiate when necessary and terminate more rapidly when no longer needed. to support our proposed model, we present the available evidence for yoga affecting self-regulatory pathways, integrating existing constructs from behavior theory and cognitive neuroscience with emerging yoga and meditation research. this paper is intended to guide future basic and clinical research, specifically targeting areas of development in the treatment of stress-mediated psychological disorders.”
Gard, T., Taquet, M., Dixit, R., Hölzel, B. K., de Montjoye, Y.-A., Brach, N., … Lazar, S. W.. (2014). Fluid intelligence and brain functional organization in aging yoga and meditation practitioners. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 6
“Numerous studies have documented the normal age-related decline of neural structure, function, and cognitive performance. preliminary evidence suggests that meditation may reduce decline in specific cognitive domains and in brain structure. here we extended this research by investigating the relation between age and fluid intelligence and resting state brain functional network architecture using graph theory, in middle-aged yoga and meditation practitioners, and matched controls. fluid intelligence declined slower in yoga practitioners and meditators combined than in controls. resting state functional networks of yoga practitioners and meditators combined were more integrated and more resilient to damage than those of controls. furthermore, mindfulness was positively correlated with fluid intelligence, resilience, and global network efficiency. these findings reveal the possibility to increase resilience and to slow the decline of fluid intelligence and brain functional architecture and suggest that mindfulness plays a mechanistic role in this preservation.”
Menezes, C. B., Dalpiaz, N. R., Kiesow, L. G., Sperb, W., Hertzberg, J., & Oliveira, A. A.. (2015). Yoga and emotion regulation: A review of primary psychological outcomes and their physiological correlates. Psychology and Neuroscience
“Discovering and promoting ways that help regulate emotions has been a recurrent concern in the field of psychology, given that how one feels and reacts to and expresses emotions can have both short- and long-term effects on physical and mental health. many psychological strategies that can influence this process, such as reappraisal, attention allocation, and suppression, have been previously investigated. the aim of the present work was to review the emotion regulation potential of yoga practice, given that it combines techniques that foster positive psychological outcomes. the results suggest that yoga produces improvements in emotional functioning in healthy subjects and people who suffer from some physical illnesses, particularly in psychological self-reported variables. evidence regarding behavioral and neurophysiological correlates remains less well-established. mechanisms that possibly mediate the relationship between yoga and emotion regulation are discussed and methodologies are considered, with suggestions for future studies. in summary, emerging evidence suggests that yoga may help foster healthier psychological responses, indicating its potential as an emotion regulation strategy. (psycinfo database record (c) 2015 apa, all rights reserved). (journal abstract)”
Schmalzl, L., Powers, C., & Henje Blom, E.. (2015). Neurophysiological and neurocognitive mechanisms underlying the effects of yoga-based practices: towards a comprehensive theoretical framework. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
“During recent decades numerous yoga-based practices (ybp) have emerged in the west, with their aims ranging from fitness gains to therapeutic benefits and spiritual development. yoga is also beginning to spark growing interest within the scientific community, and yoga-based interventions have been associated with measureable changes in physiological parameters, perceived emotional states, and cognitive functioning. ybp typically involve a combination of postures or movement sequences, conscious regulation of the breath, and various techniques to improve attentional focus. however, so far little if any research has attempted to deconstruct the role of these different component parts in order to better understand their respective contribution to the effects of ybp. a clear operational definition of yoga-based therapeutic interventions for scientific purposes, as well as a comprehensive theoretical framework from which testable hypotheses can be formulated, is therefore needed. here we propose such a framework, and outline the bottom-up neurophysiological and top-down neurocognitive mechanisms hypothesized to be at play in ybp”
Solomonova, E.. (2015). First-person experience and yoga research: studying neural correlates of an intentional practice. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
“Recent years have seen a dramatic increase in the scientific study of contemplative practices. while seated meditation practices have historically been at the center of inquiry in contemplative sciences, movement-based practices, such as yoga, t’ai chi, qigong, and others, are currently coming to the forefront of this discourse. in her introduction to the present research topic, schmalzl et al. (2014) introduce movement-based contemplative practices (mbcp) and present their essential qualities: mbcps are embodied and attentive to kinesthetic and proprioceptive sensations; are structured by intentional movement; and are contemplative, that is, characterized by deliberate observation and non-judgmental awareness. in this opinion paper, i focus on the necessity of studying intentional and experiential aspects of yoga as a mbcp, and on the role of first-person experiential reports in the neurophenomenological investigation of yoga and other mbcps. i propose that the difference between yoga as a contemplative practice and yoga as a form of physical exercise needs to be assessed through nuanced investigation of subjective experience aimed at illuminating short- and long-term intentions and goals underlying yoga practice as well as dynamic variations within the lived experience of yoga.”
Sullivan, M. B., Erb, M., Schmalzl, L., Moonaz, S., Noggle Taylor, J., & Porges, S. W.. (2018). Yoga Therapy and Polyvagal Theory: The Convergence of Traditional Wisdom and Contemporary Neuroscience for Self-Regulation and Resilience. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
“Yoga therapy is a newly emerging, self-regulating complementary and integrative healthcare (cih) practice. it is growing in its professionalization, recognition and utilization with a demonstrated commitment to setting practice standards, educational and accreditation standards, and promoting research to support its efficacy for various populations and conditions. however, heterogeneity of practice, poor reporting standards, and lack of a broadly accepted understanding of the neurophysiological mechanisms involved in yoga therapy limits the structuring of testable hypotheses and clinical applications. current proposed frameworks of yoga-based practices focus on the integration of bottom-up neurophysiological and top-down neurocognitive mechanisms. in addition, it has been proposed that phenomenology and first person ethical inquiry can provide a lens through which yoga therapy is viewed as a process that contributes towards eudaimonic well-being in the experience of pain, illness or disability. in this article we build on these frameworks, and propose a model of yoga therapy that converges with polyvagal theory (pvt). pvt links the evolution of the autonomic nervous system to the emergence of prosocial behaviors and posits that the neural platforms supporting social behavior are involved in maintaining health, growth and restoration. this explanatory model which connects neurophysiological patterns of autonomic regulation and expression of emotional and social behavior, is increasingly utilized as a framework for understanding human behavior, stress and illness. specifically, we describe how pvt can be conceptualized as a neurophysiological counterpart to the yogic concept of the gunas, or qualities of nature. similar to the neural platforms described in pvt, the gunas provide the foundation from which behavioral, emotional and physical attributes emerge. we describe how these two different yet analogous frameworks—one based in neurophysiology and the other in an ancient wisdom tradition—highlight yoga therapy’s promotion of physical, mental and social wellbeing for self-regulation and resilience. this parallel between the neural platforms of pvt and the gunas of yoga is instrumental in creating a translational framework for yoga therapy to align with its philosophical foundations. consequently, yoga therapy can operate as a distinct practice rather than fitting into an outside model for its utilization in research and clinical contexts.”
Sullivan, M. B., Erb, M., Schmalzl, L., Moonaz, S., Noggle Taylor, J., & Porges, S. W.. (2018). Yoga Therapy and Polyvagal Theory: The Convergence of Traditional Wisdom and Contemporary Neuroscience for Self-Regulation and Resilience.. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 12, 67.
“Yoga therapy is a newly emerging, self-regulating complementary and integrative healthcare (cih) practice. it is growing in its professionalization, recognition and utilization with a demonstrated commitment to setting practice standards, educational and accreditation standards, and promoting research to support its efficacy for various populations and conditions. however, heterogeneity of practice, poor reporting standards, and lack of a broadly accepted understanding of the neurophysiological mechanisms involved in yoga therapy limits the structuring of testable hypotheses and clinical applications. current proposed frameworks of yoga-based practices focus on the integration of bottom-up neurophysiological and top-down neurocognitive mechanisms. in addition, it has been proposed that phenomenology and first person ethical inquiry can provide a lens through which yoga therapy is viewed as a process that contributes towards eudaimonic well-being in the experience of pain, illness or disability. in this article we build on these frameworks, and propose a model of yoga therapy that converges with polyvagal theory (pvt). pvt links the evolution of the autonomic nervous system to the emergence of prosocial behaviors and posits that the neural platforms supporting social behavior are involved in maintaining health, growth and restoration. this explanatory model which connects neurophysiological patterns of autonomic regulation and expression of emotional and social behavior, is increasingly utilized as a framework for understanding human behavior, stress and illness. specifically, we describe how pvt can be conceptualized as a neurophysiological counterpart to the yogic concept of the gunas, or qualities of nature. similar to the neural platforms described in pvt, the gunas provide the foundation from which behavioral, emotional and physical attributes emerge. we describe how these two different yet analogous frameworks-one based in neurophysiology and the other in an ancient wisdom tradition-highlight yoga therapy’s promotion of physical, mental and social wellbeing for self-regulation and resilience. this parallel between the neural platforms of pvt and the gunas of yoga is instrumental in creating a translational framework for yoga therapy to align with its philosophical foundations. consequently, yoga therapy can operate as a distinct practice rather than fitting into an outside model for its utilization in research and clinical contexts.”
Villemure, C., ÄŒeko, M., Cotton, V. A., & Bushnell, M. C.. (2015). Neuroprotective effects of yoga practice: age-, experience-, and frequency-dependent plasticity. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 9
“Yoga combines postures, breathing, and meditation. despite reported health benefits, yoga’s effects on the brain have received little study. we used magnetic resonance imaging to compare age-related gray matter (gm) decline in yogis and controls. we also examined the effect of increasing yoga experience and weekly practice on gm volume and assessed which aspects of weekly practice contributed most to brain size. controls displayed the well documented age-related global brain gm decline while yogis did not, suggesting that yoga contributes to protect the brain against age-related decline. years of yoga experience correlated mostly with gm volume differences in the left hemisphere (insula, frontal operculum, and orbitofrontal cortex) suggesting that yoga tunes the brain toward a parasympatically driven mode and positive states. the number of hours of weekly practice correlated with gm volume in the primary somatosensory cortex/superior parietal lobule (s1/spl), precuneus/posterior cingulate cortex (pcc), hippocampus, and primary visual cortex (v1). commonality analyses indicated that the combination of postures and meditation contributed the most to the size of the hippocampus, precuneus/pcc, and s1/spl while the combination of meditation and breathing exercises contributed themost to v1 volume. yoga’s potential neuroprotective effects may provide a neural basis for some of its beneficial effects.”
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Our scientific power has outrun our spiritual power. We have guided missiles and misguided men.
