Christopher B. Germann (2016) - DMT: An endogenous neurotransmitter with unknown function

Christopher B. Germann

N,N-Dimethyltryptamine: An endogenous

neurotransmitter with extraordinary eﬀects.

Christopher B. Germann (2016)

Marie Curie Fellow

University of Plymouth, Cognition Institute - CogNovo, Plymouth, United Kingdom.

mail@christopher-germann.de

In memoriam of Dr. Martha Blassnigg (*08.09.1969; †27.09.2015) who went home much too soon.

Abstract

he most complex physical object in the known universe is the human brain

and the most complex mental phenomenon is the human psyche. Human-

kind has travelled through outer space and we now possess detailed charts of

the moon and many other extraterrestrial objects. However, hitherto modern

science is unable to provide a comprehensive cartography of the varieties of

human experience (Fisher, 1971), despite the eﬀorts of the extraordinary

Swiss depth psychologist Carl Gustav Jung who provided a rudimentary

“skeletal” map of the psyche. Ergo, the great frontiers of 21st century science

are internal and psychological and it should be psychologies primary focus to

systematically chart these largely unexplored “antipodes of mind” – the

“terra incognita” – as Aldous Huxley eloquently formulated it (Huxley, 1956,

p.71). In this context, it has been eﬀectively argued that the discovery of

several unique psychoactive chemical substances is methodologically as

important to the study of the mind as the invention of the microscope to

progress in chemistry or the telescope to astronomy (Grof, 2000, p.297).

This paper reviews a powerful endogenous psychoactive agent, N,N-Dimeth-

yltryptamine (DMT, a structural analog of serotonin and melatonin), which

catalyses unique and highly astonishing phenomenological experiences. An

eclectic, interdisciplinary approach is adopted and DMTs pertinence for

systematic research in psychology and neuroscience is discussed.

Keywords N,N-Dimethyltryptamine, 5-hydroxytryptamine, phytochemis-

try, cognition, perception, neuroscience, psychology.

Introduction

What is mind? No matter.

What is matter? Never mind.



George Berkeley (1685-1753)

In this classic couplet, Bishop Berkeley concisely addressed the quintes-

sential philosophical question concerning the fundamental relationship

between mind and matter (note that he employs Cartesian dualistic termi-

nology; i.e., res extensa vs. res cogitans).

e question Berkley poses is the following: Can mind/consciousness

ultimately be explained in a purely materialistic framework (is “it” reducible

to neurobiological mechanisms, molecules, atoms, etc. pp.)? Vice versa, the

quote addresses the inverse question: Can the totality of physical reality (in

Lockeian nomenclature, the entirety of “primary and secondary qualities”)

be accounted for solely in terms of mind? In other terms, is the material

world an idealistic creation of the mind, as many ancient eastern metaphys-

ical wisdom traditions postulate (experience, then, is the sole reality and the

observer/subject and the observed/object are of identical nature; e.g., Bhaga-

vad Gītā, Vedānta, Rigvedas, Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali)? is paradoxical

conundrum is a deep-rooted perennial problem in the philosophy of mind

and it has recently become a topic of interest for many neuroscientists.

Neurochemistry of cognition

Contemporary materialistic reductionist neuroscience emanates from the

provisional working hypothesis that the underpinnings of human cognition,

perception, and consciousness are electrochemical. at is, electrical action

potentials and chemical neurotransmission are hypothesized to ontologically

cause these phenomena. However, it is possible that this unproven assump-

tion might eventually turn out to be a case of epistemological naiveté.

Nevertheless, it is an established scientiﬁc fact that there are certain classes

Christopher B. Germann

of material substances that aﬀect consciousness reliably (the terms con-

sciousness and mind are consequently used synonymously). However, not

any arbitrary substance can alter the mind. e mind-altering substances in

question have precisely deﬁned molecular structures, which in turn cause

very speciﬁc eﬀects. For instance, there are certain psychoactive substances

that induce sedation (for instance, Diazepam). is particular sedative is

a speciﬁc case of a much larger chemical class (i.e., the Benzodiazepine fami-

ly). us, there appears to be a systematic correlation between the chemical

structure of certain compounds and the psychological eﬀects they induce (in

psychopharmacology this is known as the structure-activity relationship).

Interestingly, especially from a neurochemistry/biology point of view, sever-

al naturally occurring secondary (possibly semiotic) plant compounds have

close structural relationships with various mammalian (including human)

neurotransmitters and can consequently bind to speciﬁc cell membrane

receptors in the brain. ereby, these chemicals can reliably change a variety

of cognitive and perceptual processes (both quantitatively and qualitatively).

N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (abbreviated as DMT) is a prototypical exemplar

of such psychoactive chemicals (DMT has been oxymoronically referred

to as “the spirit molecule”; but see Strassman, 2001). e receptor binding

aﬃnity of DMT is complex and hitherto only partially understood. Howev-

er, it has been ﬁrmly established that DMT non-selectively agonises several

members of the 5-HT

(5-hydroxytryptamin also known as Serotonin)

receptor family (especially the 5-HT

and 5-HT

receptor appear to be

crucial for its psychoactive eﬀects; but see McKenna et al., 1990; Aghajani-

an & Marek, 1999; Keiser et al., 2009). Except for the 5-HT

receptor, all

5-HT receptors achieve transmembrane signal transduction via the G-pro-

tein-coupled receptors. Recently, important fundamental research on the G

protein-coupled receptor led to a series of Nobel Prizes (e.g., in 2000, 2004,

and 2012).

Moreover, it has recently been demonstrated that DMT is an endogenous

receptor regulator (Fontanilla et al., 2009;) and it has been hypothe-

sized that it plays a mediative role in tissue protection, regeneration, and

immunity (Frecska et al., 2013). From a chemical point of view, DMT is a

prototypical representative member of the indolealkylamine family known

as tryptamines. In its pure form, DMT is a white/clear, pungent-smelling,

crystalline solid. Its molecular structural geometry visualized in Figure 1 is

closely related to Serotonin.

From a phylogenetic perspective, DMT is an evolutionary very old mole-

cule which is ubiquitously present in the plant and animal kingdom (Smith,

1977). In 1961, Nobel Prize laureate Julius Axelrod reported in the journal

Science that the enzyme N-methyltransferase in a rabbit’s lung is able to

mediate the biotransformation of tryptamine into DMT (Axelrod, 1961).

More recent converging evidence strongly suggests that DMT is an endoge-

nous neurotransmitter in the human brain (e.g., Cozzi, et al., 2011; Fonta-

nilla, et al., 2009; Cozzi, et al., 2009). Surprisingly, DMT is actively trans-

ported into the brain via the blood-brain-barrier (a process that is costly

in energetic terms because it requires movement against the concentration

gradient). is factum has been discovered by Japanese scientists 30 years

ago (i.e., Yanai et al., 1986). Given that the brain in an extremely sensitive

homeostatic organ, it constantly protects itself from toxins and undesired

agents. Consequently, the blood-brain-barrier is highly selective and only

very few essential compounds like glucose and other essential nutrients are

actively moved across this membrane into the brains tissue. e phenome-

non that DMT is actively transported across this protective barrier suggests

that it plays a crucial role in ordinary brain metabolism. Moreover, DMT

does not built up tolerance, as other psychoactive tryptamines do (no signif-

Figure 1. Compounds such as psilocin (synonymous with 4-hydroxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine, a precursor of

psilocybin which is also known as O-phosphoryl-4-hydroxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine) and DMT (N,N-Dimeth-

yltryptamine) have chemical structures that resemble the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine). is

structural similarity to serotonin allows them to stimulate serotonin-sensitive neurons. Note that the intermolecular

serotonin motif is embedded in both structures.

Christopher B. Germann

icant desensitisation after repeated administration; see Strassman & Qualls,

1994; Strassman et al., 1994) and it is quickly metabolised (consequently

its duration of action is relatively short-lived) . Again, this indicates that it

is a natural building block of mammalian neurochemistry. At the moment,

there is no explanation as to why mammals have evolved an endogenous

neurotransmitter that is able to produce profoundly altered states of con-

sciousness. From an evolutionary point of view one has to ask the question:

What is the adaptive advantage of this compound in terms of survival or re-

production? However, given that the intracellular cascade triggered by DMT

is not yet fully understood it seems very diﬃcult to imagine that science is

soon able to account for its much more intricate eﬀects on perception and

consciousness (the hard problem) from a quantitative point of view.

DMTs qualitative phenomenology

From a psychological vantage point, DMT has very remarkable eﬀects, too.

One of DMTs most salient activity characteristics is that it aﬀects visual

perception in the most spectacular ways possibly imaginable. In addition,

it profoundly changes the functioning of a multitude of core cognitive

capacities. A brief (though incomplete) synopsis of DMTs subjective eﬀects

is summarised in the following list:

 Profound changes in sensory perception across modalities (e.g., per-

ceptual distortions, vivid cross-modal hallucinations, visions, synaes-

thesia)

• Highly symmetric and oftentimes fractal multidimensional visual hal-

lucinations of astonishing beauty and complexity

• Spectacular visual percepts (impossible objects which are essentially

ineﬀable)

• Subjective experience of extrasensory perceptions (e.g., telepathic phe-

nomena are commonly reported)

• Changes in time and space perception (e.g., time dilation, timelessness/

experience of inﬁnity/eternity, limitlessness/omnipresence)

• Journey-like “breakthrough into hyperspace” (trans-dimensional travel

into parallel dimension and contact with conscious “otherworldly hu-

manoid beings” is commonly reported under high doses of DMT)

• Altered body image (e.g., out-of-body-experience, taking on an animal/

alien body)

• Intense changes in mood (ranging across the whole spectrum of emo-

tions from total serenity/bliss to extreme terror)

• Sense of profound meaning and deep spiritual insights (e.g., gnosis)

• Experience of very profound “mystical states”

• Dissolution of ego boundaries (e.g., ego-death, shared consciousness)

• Feelings of interconnectedness (e.g., communion with nature, monistic

all-is-one experience)

• State of union and spontaneous realisation of oneness (nonduality, yoga)

• Near-death experience

• Experience of emptiness, nothingness, pure I-am-ness

• Feelings of tranquillity

• Being freed from one’s body and becoming integrated with one’s cos-

mic nature

• Feeling of sudden realisation of one’s homogenous cosmic essence

• State of inner harmony (Samadhi)

• Experience of a transcendental reality

• Collapse of ego-ignorance phantom (dissolution of self-limitation)

• Transformation of self-perception, transmutation of entire being

(self-transcendence)

• Expansion of awareness (experience of boundless primordial awareness)

• Experience of higher states of consciousness

• Feelings of awe and wonder

• Feeling of awakening from an illusion to a larger “more real” reality

• Appreciation of nature (perception of nature as animated and alive,

biophilia)

• Sudden insights into the nature of self and the nature of reality (epiph-

any or “satori” like experience - seeing into one’s true nature)

• Access to unconscious “Jungian alchemical archetypal” information

Potential adverse eﬀects

• Acute panic reaction (depending on idiosyncratic personality structure

and situation)

Christopher B. Germann

• Substance induced psychosis (ICD-10 diagnosis code F16.5 – low

incidence rate)

• Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (DSM-IV diagnosis code

292.89 – low incidence rate)

e following paragraphs reprint two experiences reported by research sub-

jects who participated in Rick Strassmans early DMT which were conduct-

ed in Mexico in the 1990s.

“e trip started with an electric tingling in my body, and quickly the visual

hallucinations arrived. en I noticed ﬁve or six ﬁgures walking rapidly along-

side me. ey felt like helpers, fellow travelers. A humanoid male ﬁgure turned

toward me, threw his right arm up toward the patchwork of bright colors,

and asked, “How about this?” e kaleidoscopic patterns immediately became

brighter and moved more rapidly. A second and then a third asked and did the

same thing. At that point, I decided to go further, deeper. I immediately saw

a bright yellow-white light directly in front of me. I chose to open to it. I was

consumed by it and became part of it. ere were no distinctions—no ﬁgures

or lines, shadows or outlines. ere was no body or anything inside or outside. I

was devoid of self, of thought, of time, of space, of a sense of separateness or ego,

or of anything but the white light. ere are no symbols in my language that can

begin to describe that sense of pure being, oneness, and ecstasy. ere was a great

sense of stillness and ecstasy.” (excerpt taken from Strassman, 2001; p.244)

“Eight minutes into his non-blind high-dose injection, he described this

encounter:

at was real strange. ere were a lot of elves. ey were prankish, ornery,

maybe four of them appeared at the side of a stretch of interstate highway I

travel regularly. ey commanded the scene, it was their terrain! ey were

about my height. ey held up placards, showing me these incredibly beautiful,

complex, swirling geometric scenes in them. One of them made it impossible

for me to move. ere was no issue of control; they were totally in control. ey

wanted me to look! I heard a giggling sound - the elves laughing or talking at

high-speed volume, chattering, twittering.” (excerpt taken from Strassman,

2001, p. 188).

It should be noted that the phenomenological experiences reported under

the inﬂuence of DMT are interindividually very heterogeneous (perhaps

partially due to a combination of genetically coded neurotransmitter

receptor polymorphisms and idiosyncratic psychological variables) and are

contingent upon set and setting (that is, internal psychological and external

situational factors play an important role). However, several phenomenolo-

gies are reliably induced across diverse subjects (e.g., complex visual halluci-

nations, out-of-body-experiences, trans-dimensional travels, etc.).

Space does not permit a detailed discussion of DMTs experiential phenom-

enology, particularly because linguistic expressions are circuitous and often

largely inadequate in order to convey its diverse spectrum of psychologi-

cal eﬀects (ineﬀability is a deﬁning hallmark of the translinguistic DMT

ontology which reaches far beyond the bounds of human imagination).

e perceptions and insights that are catalysed by this compound are often

described as being at total invariance with the socially grounded models of

contemporary western paradigms. Interestingly, several of DMTs structural

analogues (e.g., Psilocybin, a compound which is present in the “magic”

mushrooms which are endemic to the UK, Mantle & Waight, 1969; see

also Figure 1) have phenomenologically comparable though not identical ef-

fects (cf. Hasler et al., 2004). However, hitherto the extraordinary cognitive

changes triggered by DMT cannot be accounted for by any of the existing

theoretical frameworks provided by neuroscience and psychology.

Endogenous but prohibited

Despite the exceptional characteristics of DMT and its ubiquity in nature,

many mainstream psychologists and even professional neuroscientists are

utterly unaware of its existence (presumably, due to academic overspecial-

isation and the fact that the conventional neuroscience textbooks do not

mention it at all, e.g., Gazzaniga & Mangun, 2014; Kolb & Whishaw,

2009). Furthermore, systematic and methodologically valid research is

highly restricted due to the fact that DMT is classiﬁed as a “Class A drug”

in the UK and similarly tightly regulated as a “Schedule I substance” in the

US. is classiﬁcation is clearly not evidence based and it inhibits scientiﬁc

Christopher B. Germann

progress and innovation (let alone the fact that it violates the principle of

cognitive liberty, that is, the right to mental self-determination).

In this context, it is noteworthy that the Brazilian União do Vegetal (UDV

- www.udv.org.br) was granted precedential legal permission to use a DMT

containing drink (named Ayahuasca) in their ceremonies. e UDV, which

is claiming roots as far back as the 10

century BC, utilises Ayahuasca in

a program of spiritual evolution based on mental concentration and the

search for self-knowledge. From a juridical point of view, it is very interest-

ing that the US Supreme Court adjudicated in 2006 that the UDV is legally

permitted to deploy Ayahuasca as a religious sacrament (under the protec-

tion of the “Religious Freedom Restoration Act”).

Ayahuasca: An ancient phytochemical synergy

From a much larger historical perspective, DMT has been utilized for

spiritual/shamanistic rituals for millennia by several ancient cultural tradi-

tions. As mentioned before, it constitutes the active pharmacological princi-

ple in Ayahuasca, a plant based, drinkable concoction, which is traditionally

used by indigenous tribes in the Amazonian rainforest for divinatory and

healing purposes. In itself, DMT is orally inactive because the monoamine

oxidase (MAO) system within the gastro-intestinal (GI) tract deaminates it.

However, somehow the aboriginals have developed sophisticated intuitive

knowledge concerning its combinatorial pharmacodynamics. In order to

prevent DMTs decomposition in the gut, they mix it with a plant-based

MAO inhibitor.

To be speciﬁc, the typical primary ingredients of the Ayahuasca brew consist

of two plants, Psychotria Viridis (which contains the DMT) and Baniste-

riopsis Caapi (which contains the ȕ-carboline harmala alkaloid designated

as harmine). Harmine functions as a selective and reversible inhibitors of

the enzyme monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A) that prevents the enzymatic

breakdown of DMT in the GI-tract, thereby allowing it to be transported

via the blood-brain barrier. Hence, it is the combination of these two plants,

which enables DMT to become psychoactive. Quite thought-provokingly,

the chemical literature labelled Harmine for some time as telepathine. is

chemical was so named because of the eﬀects reported by Amazonian tribal

members (e.g., telepathic communication, clairvoyance, precognition, psy-

chic diagnosis, necromancy).

Western science has just relatively recently learned about DMT and its psy-

choactive eﬀects from ethnophamacologists who were able to conserve this

ancient cultural knowledge literally in the last minute because old shamanic

traditions are being extinguished at a fast pace by the modern industri-

al world. e inhabitants of the Amazonian rainforest have a very close

relationship with, what they call “plant-spirits”. ey regard Ayahuasca as

a wise “plant teacher” which enables them to communicate with the “spirit

world” (Beyer, 2009). It should be noted that in the shamanic paradigm the

dichotomy between spiritual and medicinal is not clear-cut as the European

heritage suggests and “sacred” plants play a central role in these traditional

indigenous contexts.

Unfortunately, the Amazonian rainforests are currently being destroyed at a

very alarming rate. e Amazonian biodiversity is among the richest in the

world, although the number of species in the red list of the IUCN (Inter-

national Union for Conservation of Nature) is growing steadily every year.

e destruction of the natural environment goes hand in hand with the loss

of culturally embedded ancient folk-knowledge concerning the utilisation

of speciﬁc plants for medicinal and spiritual purposes. Moreover, younger

generations are not very interested in the continuation of the Shamanic

traditions of their predecessors. ey prefer to move into modern technolo-

gized cities in order to take their place in the materialistic market economy

and consequently thousands of years of accumulated and potentially highly

valuable information is lost in this cultural transition.

Conclusion

Brevity does not permit me to review many intriguing aspects of this multi-

faceted topic (e.g., DMTs relation to psychological conditioning/extinction,

neurogenesis, neuroplasticity, psychoneuroindocrinology, psychoimmunol-

ogy, epigenetics, and the neuroanatomical correlates of its eﬀects). I could

Christopher B. Germann

only try to provide a very rudimentary introduction to this fascinating

newly emerging research domain. It should be emphasized that this subject

(psychoactive plant compounds and human cognition, perception, and con-

sciousness) is located at the cutting edge of modern cognitive neuroscience

and psychology and it encompasses many other adjacent disciplines (e.g.,

physics, chemistry, botany, pharmacology, psychiatry, anthropology, histo-

ry, archaeology, philosophy, religion, medicine, art, law, ethics, etc. pp.; cf.

Bois-Mariage, 2002).). I am convinced that many researchers will develop a

deep interest for this topic if they have not already done so.

For further information, the interested reader is referred to the book

“DMT: e spirit molecule” by Rick Strassman (2001) who was the ﬁrst to

conduct FDA approved rigorous scientiﬁc human trials with DMT in the

1990s. His book provides a comprehensive synopsis of DMTs neurochemis-

try and its experiential phenomenology. Strassman hypothesized back in the

90s that DMT might be present in the human pineal gland. is hypothesis

was largely ignored by the scientiﬁc community. However, his prediction

has recently been partially corroborated. In 2013, researchers ﬁrst report-

ed the presence of DMT in rodent pineal gland microdialysate (Barker, et

al., 2013). e pineal is a photoreceptive endocrine gland whose primarily

known function is the regulation of the circadian rhythm via the secretion

of melatonin (N-acetyl-5-methoxy tryptamine), another serotonergic mem-

ber of the tryptamine family (but see Reiter, 1991). Because the photosensi-

tive pinealocytes have a strong resemblance to the photoreceptor cells of the

eye, the pineal gland has also been labelled as the “third parietal eye” (Eakin,

1973). It has been subject to much speculation since Claudius Galenus and

later René Descartes who famously termed it the “principal seat of the soul”.

Future research directions

To conclude, I would like to delineate some potentially fruitful directions

for future research on DMT and formulate several empirically testable

hypotheses:

DMT and its vastly more potent relatives (e.g., 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyl-

100

tryptamine acronymized as 5-Meo-DMT) might lead to the discovery of new

classes of neurotransmitter systems (cf. the discovery of the endocannabinoid

system) that would deepen our understanding of basic neurochemistry and

may ultimately lead to the design of new pharmacological agents in order to

treat mental pathologies (cf. Jacob & Presti, 2005) or to enhance cognition

(e.g., nootropics) or expand consciousness in the healthy population.

Another research agenda should focus the role of DMT and its relatives in

molecular biology. e National Genome Research Institute published data

that indicates that the costs of genetic sequencing (DNA micro arrays) are

decreasing fast than Moore’s law for computational performance predicts

(http://genome.gov/sequencingcosts). is development opens up unprece-

dented large-scale analytic possibilities for the newly emerging discipline of

neurogenetics. For example, in analogy to the genome, the proteome, and

the connectome, the receptorome aims to map the total number of genes

that code for receptors and receptor molecules in the brain. In this regard,

it has recently been argued in a paper titled “Psychedelics and the Human

Receptorome” that “it should be possible to use this diverse set of drugs

(psychedelics) as probes into the roles played by the various receptor systems

in the human mind” (Ray, 2010, p.1; content in bracket added).

e neurochemical correlates of the various meditative states of mind are

another vibrant research topic. Researchers have observed statistically sig-

niﬁcant overlap between the neural correlates of mediation and psychedelic

experiences. Consequently, there might be a signiﬁcant degree of overlap

between the neurochemical substrates of these altered states of mind. In this

regards, the inﬂuence of DMT on microtubule (neuronal microstructures

which form part of the cytoskeleton) should be a focal point of systematic

scrutiny (but see Hameroﬀ & Penrose, 2014).

Recent research provides evidence that DMT has psychoneuroendocrin-

ological and psychoneuroimmunological eﬀects (Frecska et al., 2023).

Fascinatingly, it has been shown in a publication by Epel et al. in 2009

(co-authored by Nobel Prize laureate Elizabeth Blackburn) that mediation

inﬂuences telomere length (an indicator of biological age). Given that

101

Christopher B. Germann

DMT and various related psychoactive tryptaminergic compounds induce

states of mind that are partially qualitatively congruent with the mental

states achieved by meditative practices it seems likely that the experienc-

es triggered by DMT also have the potential to positively aﬀect telomere

length (e.g., via telomerase activity). Based on the assumption that DMT

can induce robust longitudinal changes on various levels (physical and

psychological) it seems likely that genetic changes are involved. Future

research should focus on the (epi)genetic fundament of these changes (how

gene methylation/transcription/ expression is altered following exposure to

psychoactive substances).

Another line of research should investigate the interplay between quantum

physical phenomena and altered states of consciousness. e theoretical

framework of quantum physics ascribes a pivotal role to consciousness (e.g.,

Schrödinger’s wave equation). Consequently, substances which profoundly

change the main pillar of this theoretical tenet (that is, consciousness and

the associated mechanics of perception) should be of signiﬁcant interest to

the physics community. e disciplines of physics and psychology should

pursue a close interdisciplinary discourse and collaborations in order to

combine their eﬀorts and insights (this has happened before, for instance,

the physicists Albert Einstein and Wolfgang Pauli were in close communica-

tion with depth-psychologist C.G. Jung).

Yet another auspicious line of research is an investigation of the eﬀects of

DMT on creative thinking and cognitive ﬂexibility (i.e., DMT as a catalyst

for creativity and innovation; cf. Frecska et al., 2012). Given that DMTs

phenomenology deconstructs conventional orthodox cultural worldviews it

has the potential to facilitate novel perspectives on multifarious philosophi-

cal questions and might even contribute to the resolution of “hard” scientif-

ic problems (cf. Willis, et al., 1966).

ere is much more scientiﬁc virgin that soil awaits thorough investigation.

A largely unexploited research area comprises of careful empirical tracings

of the eﬀects of various non-naturally occurring synthetic psychoactive

tryptamines which have been developed by the pioneering chemist Alexan-

102

der Shulgin (see Shulgin & Shulgin, 1997). His work entails an extensive

chemical toolbox for future work in neuroscience and psychology. In his

book “TiHKAL - Tryptamines I have known and loved” he provides a

detailed index of more than 50 psychedelic compounds (many developed

by himself). e book entails a description of their synthesis, exact chemical

structures, dosage recommendations, and qualitative comments. Most of

these compounds have yet to be rigorously researched – a task for the next

generation of curious and open-minded scientists. To provide an intriguing

example, one of the tryptamines described by Shulgin is DiPT (Diisopro-

pyltryptamine). It has unique properties because it does almost exclusively

aﬀect the auricular sense (i.e., nonlinear shifts in pitch perception - other

sensory modalities remain largely unaﬀected). It is apparent that DiPT

should be of keen interest to researchers trying to understand the neural

basis of auditory perception. However, up until now systematic research has

not been conducted (experimental ornithological studies of avian vocalisa-

tion/bioacoustics might be a fertile starting point).

Finally yet importantly, the experiences DMT evokes are of particular fasci-

nation to artists, for obviously reasons (e.g., Grey, 2012). Several visionary

artists have been deeply inspired by their transcendental experiences with

DMT and related compounds (see Figure 2).

Figure 2: e net of being by Alex Grey (inspired by the Mahayanian metaphor of Indra's net).

Further artworks created by Alex Grey are available under the following URL: http://alexgrey.com/art/

103

Christopher B. Germann

Finally, it remains an open question why DMT (and its structural relatives)

are not part of the mainstream discourse in psychology and neuroscience.

Especially given its apparently central role in perceptual processes, its

pertinence for consciousness studies, its implications for understanding

mood disorders and emotions in general, and its far-reaching philosophical

implications? A Kuhnian paradigm shift is needed. e study of naturally

occurring (plant derived) substances should be allowed into academia in

order to foster the elucidation of the interplay between psychoactive chemi-

cals, cognition, and consciousness.

Oﬀ the Lip: Science over politics!

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