Quantum Cognition
Aerts, D., Broekaert, J., & Gabora, L.. (2011). A case for applying an abstracted quantum formalism to cognition. New Ideas in Psychology, 29(2), 136–146.
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.newideapsych.2010.06.002
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“The contextual nature of experience suggests that in order to formally model it we should look to the domain of science where contextuality has been most seriously addressed: quantum mechanics. as in quantum mechanics, conscious experience consists of segments that are not contextual and do not involve resolution of ambiguity or decision, which can be modeled as dynamic evolution, and segments that are context-dependent and involve a decision or the resolution of ambiguity, which can be modeled as collapse events. an abstracted quantum mechanical representation of the entity-context interaction, with its creation of new states, is adapted to describe the process by which situations are contextualized. we show that bell inequalities-the definitive test for quantum structure-are violated in the relationship between an abstract concept and instances of that concept. we summarize work on a theory of concepts that focuses on how the potentiality of a concept gets actualized through interaction with a context, and how the mathematics of entanglement can be applied to concept combination. a full quantum model is presented for the description of (1) contextually elicited opinions (as in an opinion-poll situation), and (2) the alternating changes of cognitive state in the liar paradox. © 2010 elsevier ltd.”
Atmanspacher H.. (2015). Complementary Observables and Non-Boolean Logic Outside Quantum Physics. Arxiv.Org
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“The concept of complementarity in combination with a non-boolean calculus of propositions refers to a pivotal feature of quantum systems which has long been regarded as a key to their distinction from classical systems. but a non-boolean logic of complementary features may also apply to classical systems, if their states and observables are defined by partitions of a classical state space. if these partitions do not satisfy certain stability criteria, complementary observables and non-boolean propositional lattices may be the consequence. this is especially the case for non-generating partitions of nonlinear dynamical systems. we show how this can be understood in more detail and indicate some challenging consequences for systems outside quantum physics, including mental processes.”
Atmanspacher, H.. (2014). Non-Commutative Operations in Consciousness Studies. Journal of Consciousness Studies
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“See, stats, and : https : / / www . researchgate . net / publication / 263763914 non – commutative consciousness article impact : 0 . 77 reads 87 1 : harald eth 148 , 070 see all – text , letting . available : harald retrieved : 08 abstract over two decades , the journal of consciousness studies has established itself as a major publication outlet for research about consciousness from nu – merous interdisiplinary perspectives . its success is documented by the quality of published articles , by vivid discussions of controversial topics , and by the aptitude and wisdom with which its editors and publishers helped shape the field . our congratulations for this outstanding engagement go along with our good wishes for many more productive years to come .”
Atmanspacher, H.. (2016). Non-commutative Structures from Quantum Physics to Consciousness Studies. In From Chemistry to Consciousness (pp. 127–146). Cham: Springer International Publishing
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-43573-2_8
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“The concept of complementarity in combination with a non-boolean calculus of propositions refers to a pivotal feature of quantum systems which has long been regarded as a key to their distinction from classical systems. but a non-boolean logic of complementary features may also apply to classical systems, if their states and observables are defined by partitions of a classical state space. if these partitions do not satisfy certain stability criteria, complementary observables and non-boolean propositional lattices may be the consequence. this is especially the case for non-generating partitions of nonlinear dynamical systems. we show how this can be understood in more detail and indicate some challenging consequences for systems outside quantum physics, including mental processes.”
Bishop, R. C., & Atmanspacher, H.. (2006). Contextual Emergence in the Description of Properties. Foundations of Physics, 36(12), 1753–1777.
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1007/s10701-006-9082-8
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“The role of contingent contexts in formulating relations between properties of systems at different descriptive levels is addressed. based on the distinction between necessary and sufficient conditions for interlevel relations, a comprehensive classification of such relations is proposed, providing a transparent conceptual framework for discussing particular versions of reduction, emergence, and supervenience. one of these versions, contextual emergence, is demonstrated using two physical examples: molecular structure and chirality, and thermal equilibrium and temperature. the concept of stability is emphasized as a basic guiding principle of contextual property emergence.nnkeywords contextual emergence – contextual observables – molecular shape – temperature – topology – stability”
Busemeyer, J. R., Wang, Z., & Shiffrin, R. M.. (2015). Bayesian model comparison favors quantum over standard decision theory account of dynamic inconsistency.. Decision, 2(1), 1–12.
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1037/dec0000017
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“© 2014 american psychological association. many paradoxical findings in decision-making that have resisted explanations by standard decision theories have accumulated over the past 50 years. recent advances based on quantum probability theory have successfully accounted for many of these puzzling findings. critics, however, claim that quantum probability theory is less constrained than standard probability theory, and hence quantum models only fit better because they are more complex than standard decision models. in this article, for the first time, a bayesian method was used to quantitatively compare the 2 types of decision models, which is a method that evaluates models with respect to accuracy, parsimony, and robustness. a large experiment was used to compare the best-known models of each type, matching in their numbers of parameters, but possibly differing in the complexity of their functional forms. surprisingly, the bayesian model comparison overwhelmingly favored the quantum model, indicating that its success is due to its robust ability to make accurate predictions rather than accidental fits afforded by increased complexity.”
Busemeyer, J. R., Wang, Z., & Townsend, J. T.. (2006). Quantum dynamics of human decision-making. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 50(3), 220–241.
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.jmp.2006.01.003
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“A quantum dynamic model of decision-making is presented, and it is compared with a previously established markov model. both the quantum and the markov models are formulated as random walk decision processes, but the probabilistic principles differ between the two approaches. quantum dynamics describe the evolution of complex valued probability amplitudes over time, whereas markov models describe the evolution of real valued probabilities over time. quantum dynamics generate interference effects, which are not possible with markov models. an interference effect occurs when the probability of the union of two possible paths is smaller than each individual path alone. the choice probabilities and distribution of choice response time for the quantum model are derived, and the predictions are contrasted with the markov model. © 2006 elsevier inc. all rights reserved.”
Khrennikov, A.. (2009). Quantum-like model of cognitive decision making and information processing. Biosystems, 95(3), 179–187.
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.biosystems.2008.10.004
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“In this paper we offer the quantum-like (ql) representation of the shafir-tversky statistical effect which is well known in cognitive psychology. we apply the so-called contextual approach. we consider the shafir-tversky effect to result from mixing statistical data obtained in incompatible contexts which are involved, e.g. in prisoner’s dilemma or in more general games in which the disjunction effect can be found. as a consequence, the law of total probability is violated for the experimental data obtained in experiments on cognitive psychology by shafir and tversky [shafir, e., tversky, a., 1992. thinking through uncertainty: nonconsequential reasoning and choice. cogn. psychol. 24, 449-474] as well as tversky and shafir [tversky, a., shafir, e., 1992. the disjunction effect in choice under uncertainty. psychol. sci. 3, 305-309]. moreover, we can find a numerical measure of contextual incompatibility (the so-called coefficient of interference) as well as represent contexts which are involved in prisoner’s dilemma (pd) by probability amplitudes-normalized vectors (‘mental wave functions’). we remark that statistical data from shafir and tversky [shafir, e., tversky, a., 1992. thinking through uncertainty: nonconsequential reasoning and choice. cogn. psychol. 24, 449-474] and tversky and shafir [tversky, a., shafir, e., 1992. the disjunction effect in choice under uncertainty. psychol. sci. 3, 305-309] experiments differ crucially from the point of view of mental interference. the second one exhibits the conventional trigonometric (cos -type) interference while the first one exhibits even the so-called hyperbolic (cosh -type) interference. we discuss the ql processing of information by cognitive systems, especially, the ql decision making and both classical and ql rationality and ethics. © 2008 elsevier ireland ltd. all rights reserved.”
Pothos, E. M., & Busemeyer, J. R.. (2009). A quantum probability explanation for violations of ‘rational’ decision theory. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 276(1665), 2171–2178.
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2009.0121
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“Two experimental tasks in psychology, the two-stage gambling game and the prisoner’s dilemma game, show that people violate the sure thing principle of decision theory. these paradoxical findings have resisted explanation by classical decision theory for over a decade. a quantum probability model, based on a hilbert space representation and schrödinger’s equation, provides a simple and elegant explanation for this behaviour. the quantum model is compared with an equivalent markov model and it is shown that the latter is unable to account for violations of the sure thing principle. accordingly, it is argued that quantum probability provides a better framework for modelling human decision-making. © 2009 the royal society.”
Trueblood, J. S., & Busemeyer, J. R.. (2011). A Quantum Probability Account of Order Effects in Inference. Cognitive Science, 35(8), 1518–1552.
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1111/j.1551-6709.2011.01197.x
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“Order of information plays a crucial role in the process of updating beliefs across time. in fact, the presence of order effects makes a classical or bayesian approach to inference difficult. as a result, the existing models of inference, such as the belief-adjustment model, merely provide an ad hoc explanation for these effects. we postulate a quantum inference model for order effects based on the axiomatic principles of quantum probability theory. the quantum inference model explains order effects by transforming a state vector with different sequences of operators for different orderings of information. we demonstrate this process by fitting the quantum model to data collected in a medical diagnostic task and a jury decision-making task. to further test the quantum inference model, a new jury decision-making experiment is developed. using the results of this experiment, we compare the quantum inference model with two versions of the belief-adjustment model, the adding model and the averaging model. we show that both the quantum model and the adding model provide good fits to the data. to distinguish the quantum model from the adding model, we develop a new experiment involving extreme evidence. the results from this new experiment suggest that the adding model faces limitations when accounting for tasks involving extreme evidence, whereas the quantum inference model does not. ultimately, we argue that the quantum model provides a more coherent account for order effects that was not possible before. © 2011 cognitive science society, inc.”
Wang, Z., & Busemeyer, J. R.. (2016). Interference effects of categorization on decision making. Cognition, 150, 133–149.
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2016.01.019
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“Many decision making tasks in life involve a categorization process, but the effects of categorization on subsequent decision making has rarely been studied. this issue was explored in three experiments (n = 721), in which participants were shown a face stimulus on each trial and performed variations of categorization-decision tasks. on c-trials, they categorized the stimulus and then made an action decision; on x-trials, they were told the category and then made an action decision; on d-alone trials, they only made an action decision. an interference effect emerged in some of the conditions, such that the probability of an action on the d-alone trials (i.e., when there was no explicit categorization before the decision) differed from the total probability of the same action on the c-or x-trials (i.e., when there was explicit categorization before the decision). interference effects are important because they indicate a violation of the classical law of total probability, which is assumed by many cognitive models. across all three experiments, a complex pattern of interference effects systematically occurred for different types of stimuli and for different types of categorization-decision tasks. these interference effects present a challenge for traditional cognitive models, such as markov and signal detection models, but a quantum cognition model, called the belief-action entanglement (bae) model, predicted that these results could occur. the bae model employs the quantum principles of superposition and entanglement to explain the psychological mechanisms underlying the puzzling interference effects. the model can be applied to many important and practical categorization-decision situations in life.”
Yearsley, J. M., & Busemeyer, J. R.. (2016). Quantum cognition and decision theories: A tutorial. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 74, 99–116.
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.jmp.2015.11.005
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“Models of cognition and decision making based on quantum theory have been the subject of much interest recently. quantum theory provides an alternative probabilistic framework for modelling decision making compared with classical probability theory, and has been successfully used to address behaviour considered paradoxical or irrational from a classical point of view. the purpose of this tutorial is to give an introduction to quantum models, with a particular emphasis on how to build these models in practice. examples are provided by the study of order effects on judgements, and we will show how order effects arise from the structure of the theory. in particular, we show how to derive the recent discovery of a particular constraint on order effects implied by quantum models, called the quantum question (qq) equality, which does not appear to be derivable from alternative accounts, and which has been experimentally verified to high precision. however the general theory and methods of model construction we will describe are applicable to any quantum cognitive model. our hope is that this tutorial will give researchers the confidence to construct simple quantum models of their own, particularly with a view to testing these against existing cognitive theories.”
DMT
Strassman, R. J.. (1995). Human psychopharmacology of N,N-dimethyltryptamine. Behavioural Brain Research, 73(1–2), 121–124.
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/0166-4328(96)00081-2
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“We generated dose-response data for the endogenous and ultra-short-acting hallucinogen, n,n-dimethyltryptamine (dmt), in a cohort of experienced hallucinogen users, measuring multiple biological and psychological outcome measures. subjective responses were quantified with a new rating scale, the hrs, which provided better resolution of dose effects than did the biological variables. a tolerance study then was performed, in which volunteers received four closely spaced hallucinogenic doses of dmt. subjective responses demonstrated no tolerance, while biological measures were inconsistently reduced over the course of the sessions. thus, dmt remains unique among classic hallucinogens in its inability to induce tolerance to its psychological effects. to assess the role of the 5-hta site in mediating dmt’s effects, a pindolol pre-treatment study was performed. pindolol significantly increased psychological responses to dmt, suggesting a buffering effect of 5-ht1a agonism on 5-ht2-mediated psychedelic effects. these data are opposite to those described in lower animal models of hallucinogens’ mechanisms of action. © 1996.”
Jacob, M. S., & Presti, D. E.. (2005). Endogenous psychoactive tryptamines reconsidered: an anxiolytic role for dimethyltryptamine. Medical Hypotheses, 64(5), 930–937.
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2004.11.005
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“The presence of the potent hallucinogenic psychoactive chemical n,n-dimethyltryptamine (dmt) in the human body has puzzled scientists for decades. endogenous dmt was investigated in the 1960s and 1970s and it was proposed that dmt was involved in psychosis and schizophrenia. this hypothesis developed from comparisons of the blood and urine of schizophrenic and control subjects. however, much of this research proved inconclusive and conventional thinking has since held that trace levels of dmt, and other endogenous psychoactive tryptamines, are insignificant metabolic byproducts. the recent discovery of a g-protein-coupled, human trace amine receptor has triggered a reappraisal of the role of compounds present in limited concentrations in biological systems. interestingly enough, dmt and other psychoactive tryptamine hallucinogens elicit a robust response at the trace amine receptor. while it is currently accepted that serotonin 5-ht2a receptors play a pivotal role in the activity of hallucinogenic/psychedelic compounds, we propose that the effects induced by exogenous dmt administration, especially at low doses, are due in part to activity at the trace amine receptor. furthermore, we suggest that endogenous dmt interacts with the ta receptor to produce a calm and relaxed mental state, which may suppress, rather than promote, symptoms of psychosis. this hypothesis may help explain the inconsistency in the early analysis of endogenous dmt in humans. finally, we propose that amphetamine action at the ta receptor may contribute to the calming effects of amphetamine and related drugs, especially at low doses. © 2004 published by elsevier ltd.”
Wallach, J. V.. (2009). Endogenous hallucinogens as ligands of the trace amine receptors: A possible role in sensory perception. Medical Hypotheses, 72(1), 91–94.
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2008.07.052
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“While the endogenous hallucinogens, n,n-dimethyltryptamine, 5-hydroxy-n,n-dimethyl-tryptamine and 5-methoxy-n,n-dimethyltryptamine, have been acknowledged as naturally occurring components of the mammalian body for decades, their biological function remains as elusive now as it was at the time of their discovery. the recent discovery of the trace amine associated receptors and the activity of dmt and other hallucinogenic compounds at these receptor sites leads to the hypothesis that the endogenous hallucinogens act as neurotransmitters of a subclass of these trace amine receptors. additionally, while activity at the serotonin 5-ht2a receptor has been proposed as being responsible for the hallucinogenic affects of administered hallucinogens, in their natural setting the 5-ht2a receptor may not interact with the endogenous hallucinogens at all. additionally 5-ht2a agonist activity is unable to account for the visual altering effects of many of the administered hallucinogens; these effects may be mediated by one of the endogenous hallucinogen trace amine receptors rather than the serotonin 5-ht2a receptor. therefore, activity at the trace amine receptors, in addition to serotonin receptors, may play a large role in the sensory altering effects of administered hallucinogens and the trace amine receptors along with their endogenous hallucinogen ligands may serve an endogenous role in mediating sensory perception in the mammalian central nervous system. thus the theory proposed states that these compounds act as true endogenous hallucinogenic transmitters acting in regions of the central nervous system involved in sensory perception. © 2008 elsevier ltd. all rights reserved.”
Barker, S. A., Borjigin, J., Lomnicka, I., & Strassman, R.. (2013). LC/MS/MS analysis of the endogenous dimethyltryptamine hallucinogens, their precursors, and major metabolites in rat pineal gland microdialysate. Biomedical Chromatography, 27(12), 1690–1700.
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1002/bmc.2981
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“We report a qualitative liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (lc/ms/ms) method for the simulta- neous analysis of the three known n,n-dimethyltryptamine endogenous hallucinogens, their precursors and metabolites, as well as melatonin and its metabolic precursors. the method was characterized using artificial cerebrospinal fluid (acsf) as the matrix and was subsequently applied to the analysis of rat brain pineal gland-acsf microdialysate. the method de- scribes the simultaneous analysis of 23 chemically diverse compounds plus a deuterated internal standard by direct injection, requiring no dilution or extraction of the samples. the results demonstrate that this is a simple, sensitive, specific and direct approach to the qualitative analysis of these compounds in this matrix. the protocol also employs stringent ms confirmatory criteria for the detection and confirmation of the compounds examined, including exact mass measurements. the excellent limits of detection and broad scope make it a valuable research tool for examining the endogenous hallucinogen pathways in the central nervous system. we report here, for the first time, the presence of n,n-dimethyltryptamine in pineal gland microdialysate obtained from the rat. copyright”
Barker, S. A., Monti, J. A., & Christian, S. T.. (1981). N,N-Dimethyltryptamine: An Endogenous Hallucinogen. In International Review of Neurobiology (pp. 83–110)
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/S0074-7742(08)60291-3
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“This chapter reviews the biosynthesis, metabolism, pharmacology, and properties of n,n-dimethyltryptamine (dmt), leading to a conclusion that dmt may be a neurotransmitter in the mammalian brain. the identification of dmt and other hallucinogens in man explains the experience of hallucinatory phenomena in general. data is presented in the chapter to illustrate that dmt is a normal constituent of mammalian brain and other tissues. enzymes capable of synthesizing dmt from tryptamine (ta) and -n-methyltransfera (nmt) are also described. these enzymes are apparently controlled by small peptide-like compounds as well as by feedback inhibition from substrate and product. a cyclic metabolic pathway for dmt is offered. there is also evidence that dmt is taken up into synaptosomes and stored in vesicles by mechanisms identical to those described for known neurotransmitter substances. specific binding sites for dmt are suggested and dmt is shown to lead to the production of cyclic adenosine monophosphate. (camp), a secondary receptor messenger. as evidence of its electrophysiological activity, it has been shown that, dmt stimulates fluid secretion from the salivary glands of blowflies, changes the transepithelial and intracellular potential of the gland, and increases the production of camp. thus, dmt fulfills the criteria for consideration as a neurotransmitter or a neuromodulator per se. © 1981, academic press inc.”
Rosengarten, H., & Friedhoff, A. J.. (1976). A Review of Recent Studies of the Biosynthesis and Excretion of Hallucinogens Formed by Methylation of Neurotransmitters or Related Substances. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 2(1), 90–105.
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1093/schbul/2.1.90
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“Reviews recent evidence on the transmethylation hypothesis of schizophrenia: that a metabolic aberration in a methylating system could lead to the formation of hallucinogenic substances resembling mescaline in structure or that hallucinogens might also be formed from serotonin or tryptamine, compounds that could be transformed to bufotenine or dimethyltryptamine (dmt), which are present in some psychotomimetic agents. five specific conclusions about enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of hallucinogenic substances are presented. it is noted that the main problem in current research on the transmethylation hypothesis is adequate compound identification. the need for both definitive assessments of the relationship of endogenous hallucinogens to the various psychotic states conducted with drug-free ss and longitudinal studies of symptoms and chemical parameters is stressed. (4 p ref) (psycinfo database record (c) 2010 apa, all rights reserved)”
Meek, J. L., & Fuxe, K.. (1971). Serotonin accumulation after monoamine oxidase inhibition. Effects of decreased impulse flow and of some anti-depressants and hallucinogens. Biochemical Pharmacology
Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(71)90155-9
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“The rate of synthesis of serotonin (5-ht) in rat brain and spinal cord was determined by inhibiting monoamine oxidase and measuring the resulting accumulation of 5-ht. the location of this 5-ht was examined using fluorescence histochemistry. no alteration of accumulation was seen when the flow of impulses in serotonergic nerve fibers in the spinal cord was decreased by sectioning. the accumulation was also unaltered when the animals were treated with several drugs that reduce 5-ht turnover: lsd, psilocybin and chlorimipramine. these results support previous suggestions that normal control of synthesis of 5-ht by end-product inhibition or impulse-controlled feedback does not function in rats treated with a mao inhibitor. the accumulation of 5-ht in brain was reduced when the animals were treated with n,n-dimethyltryptamine, α-ethyltryptamine, p-methoxy amphetamine or p-chloromethamphetamine after receiving a monoamine oxidase inhibitor. the same effect also occurred in both intact and transected spinal cords. these drugs also caused the appearance of extraneuronal 5-ht fluorescence. these effects probably mainly arose from release by these latter drugs of 5-ht which was not stored in granules. p-chloromethamphetamine was also seen to deplete 5-ht from the granular stores of normal animals. p-methoxyamphetamine, p-chloromethamphetamme and α-ethyltryptamine strongly potentiated the hindlimb extensor reflex in spinal rats whose endogenous 5-ht stores had been depleted. these drugs seem to directly stimulate the central 5-ht receptors involved in this reflex. © 1971.”